Karate Kendo and BJJ Blog: August 2010

This article seeks to summarize the article So You Want To Learn Implicitly? Coaching and Learning Through Implicit Motor Learning Techniques by Jamie M. Poolton and Tiffany L. Zachry International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 2 · Number 1 · 2007 and to relate how implicit learning may be applied to Karate and Martial Arts training.

by Adrian Cartland
Llb (with Hons.) BEc GDLP
2nd Dan Goju Ryu

The Author is indebted to Dr Greg Lovell Mbbs Dip Dhm FACSP for his guidance, learned discussion and supervision.

Implicit Learning

“At its onset in 1992, implicit motor learning was investigated as a means to overcome a
breakdown in performance sometimes seen under psychological stress [1]. To learn implicitly basically means to remove the verbal and/or analytical systems (i.e. working from memory) from the learning process, while explicit learning techniques often encourage the use of those same systems by employing various types of instruction and/or guidance”

Put another way, implicit learning seeks to bypass the conscious learning mechanisms so that students do not need to rely on their conscious memory. Under explicit learning students eventually develop into unconscious competence of a given skill; however there is a risk that the conscious may re-engage, especially under periods of high stress, in which case the skill has a higher chance of breaking down.

An example of explicit learning in Martial Arts is as follows (admittedly exaggerated somewhat to emphasize the difference between explicit and implicit learning):
Students new to Karate are shown how to defend against a straight right punch to the chest (Gyaku-Zuki Chudan). The instructor demonstrates and explains in front of the class that the students should:
From natural stance (Heiko Dachi) step out 45 degrees to their left into deep stance (Hidari Zen Kutsu Dachi) and execute an inside to outside block with their right arm (Migi Chudan Uchi Uke). Then execute a right ridge hand strike to the attacker’s throat (Migi Jodan Haito Uchi) and shuffle step behind the attacker, turning them anti clockwise, and grab your right hand with your left hand to execute a rear naked choke (Hadaka Jime). With your right leg right kick the opponents right leg (Kansetsu Geri) to bring the opponent lower and make the choke more effective.

The students are then paired off and begin to practice the entire sequence.

Initially one would expect that students would struggle with all these techniques - between them having to learn to punch, block, choke and kick - and they would no doubt be very actively thinking about each technique. Especially since this is their first lesson. Perhaps this was too advanced to teach an absolute beginner? However, let us assume that the instructor is wise and makes the students practice the sequence every class for many months and the students eventually are able to apply the sequence fluidly and unconsciously.

Where there this research says that there is a risk is that under stress the student who has learned in this manner may revert to having to consciously thinking about the skill, with the potential to break down. That is, there is a risk that if the student had to apply these techniques under a (very stressful) self defence scenario they may have to think about how to defend themselves, consequently decreasing reaction time and the ability to apply their techniques.

Benefits of Implicit Learning

Learning without using the conscious memory (without using verbal and/or analytical systems), that is implicit learning, may remove the risk of reverting to conscious thinking under stress, however does a teacher in a manner so that students may learn implicitly?

Implicit learning it not a novel technique that is the one way to teach students. Rather there are many ways in which a student may learn implicitly. However, the initial research into implicit learning was not entirely helpful:

“The trouble with the initial implicit motor learning techniques, however, was that they tended to be somewhat less than practical for a teaching or coaching environment [9]. For example, to ensure that learners were not relying on their verbal or analytical systems, the earliest study had participants attempt to randomly generate and call out letters of the alphabet ... while they are practising golf putting ... Obviously, using these methods in the practical arena would beat best a nuisance and at worst confusing and demotivating to learners”.

Fortunately more recent research has developed implicit learning further.

Errorless Learning

“Errorless learning does not literally mean that no errors are made, but simply that errors are kept to a minimum, especially early in the learning process. The concept behind it is a method that practitioners have been using for centuries to teach people new skills – start easy and gradually increase the difficulty. In its applied form, errorless learning is a more rigid use of this concept and it attempts to constrain the learner’s environment such that errors are prevented, if not altogether, then at least for the most part. The idea is that with a reduced amount of errors will come a reduced propensity to form and test hypotheses that would lead to a buildup of declarative knowledge. For instance, the first errorless learning study by Maxwell and colleagues [7] had an errorless group start putting golf balls at a distance of 25 cm from the hole and gradually moved back to 200 cm in increments of 25 cm (50 trials at each distance). An errorful group, which started from the furthest distance and worked their way closer to the hole, was included as a contrast to the errorless group. Unlike the errorless learners, this group was put in a position to encourage more errors early in the learning process. A group that putted from the different distances in random order was also included to act as a control group, and none of the groups were given any kind of verbal or physical guidance. One of the most important findings of this study was that the errorless learners were able to maintain their performance level despite...[other tasks that they were required to concentrate on]”

Errorless learning is a concept familiar to many who have studied Karate and other traditional Martial Arts. Having a very slow learning curve might be seen in learning one Kata for several years, e.g. Higashionna Kanryo would teach Sanchin kata for 3 or 4 years, and Gichin Funakoshi wrote that he spent 10 years studying Naifanchin (Karatedo: My Way of Life, Funakoshi, 1956).

Applying errorless learning to the teaching example above the instructor might drill the students on transitioning from Heiko Dachi to Zen Kutsu Dachi, and then teach the Uchi Uke from Zen Kutsu Dachi, and only once they have perfected both move on to combining the both of them. Then perhaps teach the Chudan Gyaku Zuki and then in pairs practice Uchi Uke against Chudan Zuki. Slowly add in the further components of stepping, Haito Uchi, shuffle stepping, Hadaka Jime and Kansetsu Geri.

“Does this research suggest that a coach eager to pass on years of wisdom and expertise is now obsolete? To address this question and to further emphasize its usefulness as a means to impart implicit motor learning characteristics, a study by Poolton and colleagues [11] showed that errorless learning is most important in the early stages of acquiring a skill and does not suffer ill effects if verbal instructions are introduced later on in the process.”

“This revealed that, as a learning technique, errorless learning can have positive effects even if
combined with the explicit “rules” that had been shown to be detrimental in previous studies;
the only stipulation is that these rules should not be given to the learner until a period of
implicit (in this case, errorless) learning has taken place.[Underlining added]”

Therefore if the students have already built up the skill sets in question, the explicit teaching method is no longer detrimental: that is, the students will not suffer from a possible breakdown in technique or reversion to conscious memory under stress and will instead be able to execute the techniques with unconscious competence.

Therefore if the original example is changed so that the students learning the techniques are not beginners but are instead Black Belt student who have trained all of the techniques in question through errorless learning then explicit instruction method would be well suited and the students should be able to perform the techniques under stress.

As a final point on errorless learning, under a state of physical fatigue errorful students (that is students that are allowed to make mistakes during their learning) have significantly reduced performance in a state of fatigue whereas errorless students are either unaffected in their performance or at least significantly less affected.

Unfortunately the research on performance by errorless students does not currently extend to performance under psychological stress (such as the type that may be encountered in a self defence situation) although it would be expected that errorless students would perform better than errorful.

External Focus of Attention

The intention of an external focus is to prevent the student “from becoming too engaged in the step-by-step mechanics of a skill and allows more automated performance to occur”

“What this means in simple terms is concentrating one’s attention on the aspects of a movement which relate to its outcome, rather than on the movement itself (which has been dubbed an internal focus of attention)”

Put another way, internal focus is focusing on the individual movements that make up the skill, external focus is focusing on the overall result and the letting brain take care of the rest.

A simple example of the difference between external focus of attention and internal focus of attention is hitting a ball with a bat. Internal focus is where the striker concentrates on the movement of their arms or on the bat or on both of them; external focus is where the striker concentrates on the movement of the ball. It is common wisdom that it is better to “keep your eye on the ball”, and the research into an external focus of attention supports that external focus of attention supports this common wisdom. Specifically, in studies contrasting external focus and internal focus the external focus participants have been found to have:

* better retention of the skill practiced;
* better accuracy and co-ordination;
* more attention resources available (useful if multiple tasks are being undertaking, e.g. striking and also warding off strikes);
* less knowledge of explicit “rules” (the problems with which are explained above); and
* more automated performance.

A classical example of external focus of attention in Karate is thinking of striking “through” the target: the focus on the target - specifically upon striking through it - will improve the technique. In contrast an internal focus while punching might be: 'as you strike the target feel the arm straightening with the elbow extending and the wrist holding straight and with the weight moving forward from the body'.

The external focus can also be applied when executing Kihon and Ido (basic techniques). That is, a focus on an imaginary external target when practicing techniques in the absence of a target.

Finally, an external focus of attention when practicing Kata will improve the techniques demonstrated; the external focus applicable is the bunkai (application) of the Kata. For example when demonstrating the final techniques of Saifa the practitioner might think of the Haito Uchi and Hadaka Jime (rear naked choke) described above. (See video below for an example) Naturally and external focus of attention during Kata is made easier by having specific bunkai for each technique - or set of techniques -rather than performing mere movements that may have a multitude of applications.

Analogy Learning

Analogy learning should be something familiar to many Martial Artists. Indeed, the first example given in the Paper of analogy learning is that from the original Karate Kid movie where Mr. Miyagi uses “wax on, wax off” as an analogy to executing blocks.

Analogy learning is a type of implicit learning, having the benefits described at the outset of this article. Further, analogy learning has been tested directly under psychological stress, whereas errorless learning and external focus have only been tested indirectly.

Analogy learning is often coupled with an external focus of attention, e.g. in golf “let the club perform a pendulum like motion”, or may be used to create an external focus of attention. So the final technique in Saifa may be described as a Haito Uchi to an opponent followed by a Hadaka Jime etc.

An important component to analogy learning is having a culturally relevant analogy. For example a Gyaku-Zuki being blocked by an Uchi Uke (as described in the initial example) could be described as“one-homed ox” and “keeping a flower” (Posture 37, page 222 of the Bubishi: The Classic Manual of Combat, as translated by Hanshi Patrick McCarthy) which the writer assumes may have historically been an appropriate analogy in China. While modern readers will struggle with old chinese analogies it is up to the learner to develop new ones that are applicable to him.

Each of us have different backgrounds and can (if prodded) come up with our own new ideas as memory devices. That way we will remember them much more readily. It may be in everyone of us to create the next “wax on, wax off” that will be used by countless students into the future, or which is pored over by historians hundreds of years in the future.